Work, Reproduction, and Health in Two Andean Communities

By Anne Larme, 1993.

Appendix 1: Language Use in Cuyo Cuyo

(page 168)

The first language of the Cuyo Cuyeños is Quechua. However, their dialect is liberally sprinkled with Aymara, another indigenous language presently spoken by people to the south of them near Lake Titicaca, and with Spanish, the language of the European colonizers. Most Cuyo Cuyo men and some of the younger women are bilingual in Quechua and Spanish. Ethnographic data used in this study were collected by myself and by my research assistants in both Spanish and Quechua.

Orthography

In the following glossary, Quechua and Spanish terms are designated by "Qu." and "Sp." respectively. Where I have been able to ascertain Aymara origins for terms, they are designated "Aym." Spellings follow Cusihuaman's Quechua Dictionary of the Cusco-Collao Dialect (1976), unless the Quechua word is commonly used by Peruvian Spanish-speakers (e.g. coca, pollera). Spanish words assimilated into Quechua (e.g., animu, trabaju) are designated by both "Qu." and "Sp.," and the spelling has been altered to reflect the Quechua pronunciation of Spanish (e.g., e becomes i and o becomes u). The glossary also includes several phonemes distinct from either English or Spanish, including aspirated (chh, kh, ph, qh, th) and glottalized (ch', k', p', q', t') consonants, among others.

Glossary Agente Municipal (Sp.) -- Municipal Agent, an ayllu-level political post. Duties include certifying deaths, presiding over community events, and helping to resolve disputes, among others.

aka k'uchu (Qu., "excrement corner") -- a shallow latrine behind Cuyo Cuyo houses.

Anchanchu (Aym., "supernaturally powerful being") -- benevolent spirit who helps Puna Ayllu miners find gold in Ancoccala.

Ancoccala -- Puna Ayllu's gold mining and herding settlement, located at approximately 1000 meters above the main community.

anemia (Sp.) -- a non-specific category of illnesses contracted in the lowlands, characterized by lack of energy, changes in appetite and skin color, weight loss, and food cravings. Also called mal de la sangre (Sp., blood sickness).

animu (Sp./Qu.) -- soul or life force.

ankacha (Aym.?) -- early harvest.

ankhari (Aym?) -- messenger spirits of the apus.

apu (Qu., "lord") -- sacred mountain peak. One of two principal supernatural beings in Cuyo Cuyo.

(page 169)

ap'hata (Aym.?) -- reciprocal "gift" given at weddings and other fiestas.

ayllu (Qu.) -- Andean social group; in particular, indigenous peasant community.

ayni (Qu.) -- reciprocity, especially reciprocal labor used for building houses, herding, and certain gold mining tasks.

calor (Sp., "heat") -- a "hot" temperature or essence in a food or in the environment that enters the body and causes illness. (Q'oñi in Quechua.)

cambio de clima (Sp., "climate/weather change") -- expression used by Cuyo Cuyo Quechua speakers to refer to altitude and weather changes.

campesino(a) (Sp.) -- peasant, rural agriculturalist. In Peru, this term replaced the official use of the term indio (Indian) by government decree in 1969.

cañu (Sp./Qu.) -- canals used for gold mining in Ancoccala; placer mine.

cargo (Sp.) -- ayllu-level political or religious post.

Carnavales (Sp.) -- Carnival, one of two major week-long festivals in Cuyo Cuyo; takes place in February or March.

cesante (Sp.) -- man who has completed the cargo progression and becomes a community elder, informally sought after for advice by younger men. Also kuraq runa (Qu.).

coca (Sp., from the Quechua kuka) -- dried leaves of a tropical bush that are chewed throughout the Andes for their stimulant effect.

colegio (Sp.) -- school attended after primary school; equivalent to high school in the U.S.

colerina (Sp./Qu., from the Spanish cólera, "anger") -- anger sickness, characterized by upset stomach and the vomiting of green bile.

comadre (Sp.) -- female ritual co-parent. (See compadrazgo.)

compadrazgo (Sp.) -- a fictive kin relationship created through Catholic or Andean rituals in Cuyo Cuyo; used to extend the web of reciprocal relations.

comunero(a) (Sp.) -- member of an officially recognized peasant community (comunidad campesina reconocida) in Peru.

comunidad campesina reconocida (Sp.) -- officially recognized peasant community in Peru; generally shortened to comunidad.

condenadu (Sp./Qu.) -- ghosts, or souls trapped on earth after death who roam the earth by night, frightening humans and causing illness. (Kukuchi in Quechua.)

cordillera (Sp., "mountain range") -- term used by Puna Ayllinos to denote the lands above Puna Ayllu where comuneros herd camelids and mine gold.

corte (Sp.) -- placer mine in Madre de Dios.

(page 170)

Cuyo Cuyo -- name of the District in which Ura Ayllu and Puna Ayllu are located; also the name of the District capital.

Cuyo Cuyeño(a) -- person who lives in the District of Cuyo Cuyo.

chakra (Qu.) -- agricultural plot or field.

chikimachu (Qu./Aym.?, "old man's skin") -- tropical illness with symptoms of yellow skin, big eyes, and big feet. Possibly the Quechua/Aymara translation of anemia.

chiraw timpu (Qu. + Sp.) -- the cold, dry season in Cuyo Cuyo.

cholo(a) (Sp.) -- indigenous people who aspire to an urban lifestyle, thereby dropping indigenous customs and dress, and sometimes language. In Peru the cholo "class" has a distinctive dress form for women which varies by region, making them easily identifiable.

chukcha rutusqa (Qu., "haircutting") -- first haircutting ritual, generally performed for children aged 1-2.

chukchu (Qu.) -- malaria.

chuku (Qu.) -- woolen veil worn by Cuyo Cuyo women.

chullpa (Aym.) -- stone house-like prehispanic graves, still visible in the Lake Titicaca region.

chumpi (Qu.) -- handwoven women's belt.

ch'ullu (Qu.) -- colorful knit cap with ear flaps worn by Andean men.

ch'unchu (Qu., "savages") -- inhabitants of the lowland jungles.

ch'uñu (Qu.) -- freeze-dried potatoes.

dañu (Qu., from the Spanish, "harm") -- sorcery.

dañuq (Qu.) -- ritual specialist who performs sorcery. The same person who performs other types of rituals in Cuyo Cuyo (see hampikuq, sirviq).

de falda (Sp., "with a skirt") -- used in reference to a woman who wears urban-style, mestizo dress.

débil (Sp./Qu.) -- weak, vulnerable, susceptible to illness.

debilidad (Sp./Qu., "weakness") -- the state of being vulnerable to illness. Caused by experiencing hunger, cold, or negative emotions, or by being in a dangerous location or out at night.

Empresa Comunal (Sp., "Community Enterprise") -- term used for Ura Ayllu's community-owned farm. It is farmed with communal labor and the profits are used to fund community projects. Puna Ayllu has an Empresa Comunal in Ancoccala devoted to herding camelids.

(page 171)

encomienda (Sp.) -- royal trusteeship of Indians and their tributes in colonial times.

estancia (Qu., from Spanish, "farm, ranch") -- agricultural terraces and lands in the Cuyo Cuyo valley proper.

faena (Sp., "task, job, duty") -- labor tax used for public works projects in Cuyo Cuyo.

feto (Sp., "fetus") -- term used in Cuyo Cuyo death records to denote a stillborn, or neonate who dies shortly after birth.

fiebre amarilla (Sp.) -- yellow fever.

frío (Sp., "cold") -- a "cold" temperature or essence in a food or in the environment that enters the body and causes illness. (Chiri in Quechua.)

fuerza (Sp.) -- "strength," regarded to be a central component of health in Cuyo Cuyo; opposite of debilidad.

Guardia Civil (Sp.. "Civil Guard") -- Peruvian national police force.

gripe (Sp./Qu.) -- cold, influenza, upper respiratory infection.

gusano (Sp.,"worm") -- word used by Cuyo Cuyeños to refer to an invisible illness-causing agent, analogous to "germ" or "microbe" in English. (Kuru in Quechua.)

hampikuq (Qu., from hampi, medicine) -- one who performs ritual cures and divination. Same person who performs other types of rituals in Cuyo Cuyo (see dañuq, sirviq).

hap'iqasqa (Qu., "the grabbing") -- illness thought to be caused by Earth spirits capturing the soul or life force of a person when he or she is in a state of debilidad.

hayaqen (Qu.) -- bile.

Huaypetue -- lowland gold mining site of Ura Ayllu men in the Department of Madre de Dios.

icchu (Qu.) -- high altitude grass used for roofing material, cooking fuel, and guinea pig fodder.

indio (Sp., "Indian") -- indigenous-language-speaking, lower class person in rural Peru. Replaced with the term campesino (rural agriculturalist) by 1969 government decree.

inkhuña (Aym.?) -- small, handwoven cloth used by women in Cuyo Cuyo to carry coca and other valuables in their waistbands.

intestinos (Sp.) -- "intestines," the word used by Cuyo Cuyeños to describe deep inside the body. When illness lodges there, it becomes incurable (Qu., iritasqa).

inti (Qu./Sp.) -- Peruvian national currency during the period of research.

iritasqa (Qu., from Sp.?) -- deep-seated, chronic, impossible to cure; used to describe illness.

(page 172)

Kallawayas -- renowned traveling healers from Bolivia.

kukuchi (Qu.) -- ghost or evil spirit; same as condenadu.

kuraka (Qu.) -- native official during colonial times.

k'irusqa (Aym.?) -- the manner of wrapping infants up tightly with only the face exposed, for approximately the first three months of life.

khaña (Aym.?) -- spoiled, as in spoiled child. This is thought to be a cause of childhood illness in Cuyo Cuyo.

larpa (Aym.) -- illness suffered by infants, with symptoms of diarrhea and weight loss; thought to be caused by a pregnant woman viewing a human corpse or dead animal, or by the quality of a mother's breast milk.

larpa nuñuyuq (Aym./Qu., "breasts characterized by larpa") -- an intrinsic quality of some women's breast milk, thought to be one of the causes of larpa in breast-feeding infants.

limbu (Qu., from Sp.) -- the souls of unbaptized babies trapped on earth; usually referring to the souls of unwanted babies who have been killed by their mothers.

limbu wayra (Qu.) -- illness caused when a person's body is invaded by the soul or essence of a limbu.

lo andino (Sp.) -- "Andeanism," a trend in Andean literature, political thought, and ethnography that attempts to link present Andean cultural traits with prehispanic origins.

llakikuy (Qu.) -- sadness, depression. Llakikuy is a cause of illness and death in Cuyo Cuyo. (Pena in Spanish.)

llank'ay (Qu.) -- a category of work that involves hard, physical labor, as in mining and agricultural work.

Llaqta Ayllu (Qu., "the town") -- local name for the District capital of Cuyo Cuyo. (El pueblo in Spanish.)

lliklla (Qu.) -- colorful, handwoven mantle used by Cuyo Cuyo women to keep warm and to carry loads.

llucha (Aym.?) -- organ displacement caused by abrupt movements or vibrations; a cause of illness in Cuyo Cuyo.

machu (Qu., "old one") -- ambiguously good and evil ancestor spirits who inhabit the night-time world in Cuyo Cuyo. They and their remains, ancient burials and bones, are feared as a source of illness. Conversely, their night-time tilling of the fields is thought to ensure success in agriculture.

machu wayra (Qu.) -- illness caused when a person's body is invaded by the bone, or essence of a machu.

(page 173)

madre (Qu., from Sp. "mother" or "womb") -- lower back, digestive tract, urinary tract, and reproductive organs of a woman, and symptoms in this area. Analogous to riñón in men. Also short for madre onqoy. (Matríz, or enfermedad de la matríz in Spanish.)

madre onqoy (Qu., "womb sickness") -- See madre.

mal de corazón (Sp./Qu., "heart sickness") -- illness characterized by anxiety, sadness, headaches, and fainting spells. Usually caused by llakikuy.

mal de la sangre (Sp., "blood sickness") -- tropical illness; synonym for anemia.

malogrado (Sp./Qu.) -- spoiled, ruined, malfunctioning. Refers to a body damaged by hard work or childbirth, which is susceptible to illness.

mate (Qu.) -- herbal tea, often medicinal.

mesa (Qu., from the Spanish "table" or "Mass") -- ceremonial table used in rituals and social events in Cuyo Cuyo, laden with coca, alcohol, or foods to serve to supernatural beings or to the guests.

mestizo (Sp.) -- person of mixed indigenous and Hispanic descent. (Misti in Quechua.)

mink'a (Qu.) -- a form of local wage labor, intermediate between wage labor and ayni. Used primarily for agricultural work and for house construction in Cuyo Cuyo.

MINSA -- Acronym for Ministerio de Salud, the Peruvian national Ministry of Health.

misti (Qu., from the Spanish "mestizo") -- Quechua term for mestizo; denotes upper class, "white" people in the Andean region.

montera (Sp./Qu.) -- flat, black woolen hat with upturned brim worn by Cuyo Cuyo women.

murana (Sp.?/Qu.) -- homespun woolen blouse worn by Cuyo Cuyo women.

nacido muerto (Sp., "born dead") -- term used in Cuyo Cuyo death records to denote a stillborn, or neonate who dies shortly after birth. Synonym for "feto."

oca (Sp., from the Quechua uka) -- Oxalis tuberosum, a small, sweet tuber cultivated in Cuyo Cuyo.

onqoy (Qu.) -- sickness.

Pachamama (Qu.) -- Mother Earth, one of two principal supernatural beings in Cuyo Cuyo.

pago a la Tierra (Sp., "payment to the Earth") -- a ritual to give thanks to the Pachamama and to make requests. The central feature of the all-night rikch'asqa ritual. (Sirvisqa in Quechua.)

paray timpu (Qu. + Sp.) -- rainy season.

(page 174)

pena (Sp.) -- sadness, depression. Pena is a cause of illness and death in Cuyo Cuyo. (Llakikuy in Quechua.)

pichasqa (Qu.,"the cleansing") -- a ritual cure performed to cleanse the body of illness. Clothing or food is rubbed over or tied on the body to lure the illness out of the body; then these are burned.

pollera (Sp./Qu.) -- full, short skirt made from synthetic fabric worn by the cholas of southern Peru.

preocupación (Sp./Qu.) -- anxiety, worry; a cause of illness in Cuyo Cuyo. Often related to pena/llakikuy.

Presidente (Sp.) -- President; short for President of the Administrative Council, the highest political post in Cuyo Cuyo comunidades.

PSE -- Production, Storage, and Exchange Project; ecology research project carried out in the District of Cuyo Cuyo, Dr. Bruce Winterhalder, PI.

el pueblo (Sp., "the town") -- local name for the District capital of Cuyo Cuyo. (Llaqta Ayllu in Quechua.)

Puesto Sanitario (Sp.) -- government Health Post run by the MINSA.

pulmón (Qu., from the Spanish, "lung") -- shoulder or upper back region of the body in Cuyo Cuyo, and symptoms in this area. Usually refers to shoulder pain resulting from work movements, but sometimes includes respiratory complaints.

puna (Qu./Sp.) -- highland plateau in the Andes.

Puna Ayllino(a) -- people of Puna Ayllu.

Puna Ayllu (Qu., "upper community," or "community oriented to the puna") -- one of the two communities in the District of Cuyo Cuyo studied by PSE researchers.

Puneño(a) -- person from the Department of Puno.

Puno -- Department in southern Peru; also the name of its capital city on the shores of Lake Titicaca.

p'istu (Qu.) -- wraparound skirt made of homespun, brightly dyed or natural white wool, worn in layers by Cuyo Cuyo women.

phulqu (Aym.) -- Home-made, llama-hide slippers worn by some Puna Ayllu women.

qaray (Aym?) -- early morning, pre-breakfast work period, used especially during the broad bean harvest in May.

qella onqoy (Qu., "lazy sickness") -- illness thought to be caused by laziness in Cuyo Cuyo; more frequently used as a criticism for a lazy person.

qhaya (Qu.) -- a type of dried oca, fermented in pools of water, dried in the sun, and used in soups.

(page 175)

rawk'ana (Qu.) -- Andean hand hoe, used for most agricultural work in Cuyo Cuyo.

rayo (Qu., from the Spanish "lightning") -- "lightning sickness," an illness attributed to being struck by lightning in the lowlands. Also known as gloria onqoy (Sp./Qu.).

recien casado (Sp.) -- newlywed stage of marriage in Cuyo Cuyo, after the formal wedding ceremonies have taken place. Regarded to be the most stressful time in a marriage.

remedios (Sp.) -- medicines, remedies.

reumatismo (Sp./Qu.) -- rheumatism; thought to be a health hazard for gold miners who stand in "cold" water for much of the day.

rikch'asqa (Qu., "the dawning") -- an all night ritual whose central feature is a midnight pago a la tierra. It is performed before important undertakings such as a trip or a houseraising. Participants must stay awake until dawn for the ritual to be effective.

riñón (Qu., from the Spanish "kidney") -- lower back, digestive tract, urinary tract, and reproductive organs of a man's body, and symptoms in this area of the body. Analogous to madre/matríz in women.

Rosario (Sp.) -- festival of the Virgin of the Rosary (La Virgen del Rosario), the patron saint of Cuyo Cuyo, which takes place during the first week of October. One of two major week-long festivals in Cuyo Cuyo.

ruway (Qu., "to do," or "to make") -- a category of "light" work in Cuyo Cuyo, including housework and most women's work.

Sandia -- the province of Puno in which Cuyo Cuyo is located, and the capital city of that province.

Sandina -- woman of Sandia.

sanitario(a) (Sp.) -- a government health care worker who staffs MINSA health posts in Peru. Training is comparable to a paramedic, nurse practitioner, or physician's assistant in the U.S.

saqra (Qu.) -- supernaturally powerful being who lives underground and who is generally thought to be evil. Represented by snakes, lizards, toads, and animals that live underground. Also known as supay (Qu.); sometimes translated as diablo (Sp., devil).

segundo (Sp.) -- the second, "dry" course of a meal in Cuyo Cuyo, usually consisting of a rice or potato dish.

sirviq (Qu., from the Spanish servir, "to serve") -- ritual specialist who "pays" or "serves" the Pachamama. This is the same person who perform healing rituals and sorcery (see dañuq, hampikuq).

sirvisqa (Qu., "the serving"; from the Spanish, servir, "to serve") -- a ritual to give thanks to the Pachamama and to make requests. The central feature of the all-night rikch'asqa ritual. (Pago a la Tierra in Spanish.)

(page 176)

sobreparto (Sp./Qu., "after childbirth," or "confinement sickness") -- An illness resulting from childbirth, whose principal symptoms are an itchy rash, numbness and tingling in hands and feet, headaches, and sensitivity to "heat" and "cold," among others. It is regarded to be incurable and can occur at any time in a woman's life after having given birth.

sopla (Qu., from the Spanish "puff of air or wind") -- another word for wayra, an illness that travels in the air. Generally refers to an illness that enters a woman's body when it is exposed during childbirth. Symptoms include headaches, swollen gums, and rashes, among others.

suru (Aym.) -- snow blindness.

susto (Sp., "fright," or "fright sickness") -- Spanish translation for both uraña and hap'iqasqa.

Teniente Gobernador (Sp.) -- Lieutenant Governor, community-level official who answers to the District Governor, and helps resolve disputes, among other duties.

Tío Juaniquillo (Sp., "Uncle Little John") -- ambiguously good and evil spirit who helps miners in Madre de Dios to find gold. Also called Tío Q'ewiy, Uncle Twisted Nose. The Madre de Dios version of the Anchanchu.

Tío Q'ewiy (Sp. + Qu., "Uncle Twisted Nose") -- See Tío Juaniquillo.

tiyaq (Qu., from tiyay, "to live") -- the "living together stage of marriage," when a couple lives in the man's natal home before a formal wedding takes place. Called sirvinakuy in the Andean literature (see Carter 1977).

trabajo de verdad (Sp.) -- "real work," referring to men's work in gold mining in Cuyo Cuyo.

trabaju (Qu., from the Spanish, "work, job") -- a category of work foreign to the peasant culture of Cuyo Cuyo, referring to wage labor in cities, office work, teaching, etc.

triciclo (Sp.) -- a three-wheeled, pedal-powered vehicle used to transport cargo and people in southern Peru.

turqasqa (Aym., "the exchanging," from turqay, "to exchange") -- ritual cure that transfers an illness from a human body into the body of a small animal, such as a guinea pig, cat, or dog. The animal is rubbed or tied onto the ill person and then disposed of.

unuchasqa (Qu., "the pouring of water") -- a lay baptism performed soon after birth by parents and godparents, creating compadrazgo ties between the participants.

Ura Ayllino(a) -- person from Ura Ayllu.

Ura Ayllu (Qu., "lower community," or "community oriented to the lowlands") -- One of the two communities in the valley of Cuyo Cuyo studied by PSE researchers.

(page 177)

uraña (Qu., from the Spanish "hurañía," shyness, unsociableness, elusiveness, or "huraño," shy, elusive, wild?) -- fright; the state of one's soul or life force being frightened out of the body; or the remains of fright sickness that have been cleansed from the body through the urañasqa ritual. Fright sickness is suffered principally by infants and young children who are thought to have a loose body-soul connection. Its symptoms are diarrhea, fever, and crying. The Spanish etymology likely refers to the qualities of a person without a life force, who is thought to be wild, animal-like, and inhuman.

urañasqa (Qu., see uraña) -- ritual cure for uraña that consists of bathing the body with sweet-smelling substances and praying to Andean and Catholic supernatural beings; the state of a person being cured for uraña.

uta (?) -- leishmaniasis, a tropical illnesses feared by Madre de Dios miners.

wasi ruwana (Qu.) -- housework, which is generally women's work in Cuyo Cuyo.

wayk'u (Qu., from wayk'uy, to cook) -- potatoes and oca steamed in a clay pot; a principal part of most Cuyo Cuyo meals.

wayra (Qu., "air, wind, breeze") -- illness-bearing wind or air, caused by "cold," gases, fumes, wind, and evil entities, such as limbu or machus. Also sopla, viento (Sp., wind), or mal viento (Sp., evil wind).

wiri (Aym.) -- Andean footplow. Called chaki taqlla (Qu.) in the Andean literature. Also, the man who is using the foot plow.

yunka (Qu.) -- the lowland jungle directly below Cuyo Cuyo, where Ura Ayllinos mine gold, grow coca and coffee, and extract incense.